work for which the subordinate is responsible
. informing managers about the subordinate’s own performance, problems
or their personal ambitions in relation, for example, to promotion or
opportunities for developing new skills.
. passing on information about other employees in the subordinate’s
section and relations with sections with which there is a direct link
. submitting ideas on improving working methods and solving work
problems.
In the interests of effective working relations. Most organisations expect
subordinates to report formally through their immediate supervisor or
manager. However, they are likely to communicate in formally with managers
higher up the hierarchy and in some situations, such as grievance
procedure, may go directly to a more senior manager than their immediate
superior.
Horizontal information flow
In addition to upward and downward flows, there are also horizontal
information flows between people of the same status. Because many
operations within an organisation must work very closely together, there
must be formal arrangements for the exchange of information between
sections and departments. The production department, for example, must have
close contact with the purchasing department when it is considering changes
to materials and components or introducing advanced machinery and
equipment. Production staff also has to exchange information with employees
in requirement, training, marketing and transport.
The quality of information.
The essential characteristics of an efficient information system are that
the right people receive the right information at the right time. The
information communicated should be:
. internally relevant to the needs of the recipient
. accurate and concise
. comprehensive, avoiding a time-consuming request for extra
information
. clear – it must be presented and communicated without ambiguity or
possible misunderstanding.
The person receiving the information must have confidence in the ability of
the sender and, therefore have the confidence to take decisions based on
the contents of the communication. The person sending the information must
be confident that the receiver has the ability to understand, use and take
effective decisions based upon the information supplied.
This information system, the communication media and the kind of
information provided should be review on a regular basis. The information
system should be adjusted to take into account any developments within the
organisation such as changes in its organisational structure or management
style. This review should also take into account external factors such as
advances in information technology.
Informal communications
Vertical and horizontal information flows should be clearly defined. If
individual are not sure about from whom the y should receive information
and instructors, this can lead to the growth of information flows which are
not part of the formal system. If there are two information flows running
at the same time, there can be confusion and a fall in productivity. These
informal systems can generate alternative sources of information and create
a situation where the different levels of management receive inconsistent,
inaccurate or even conflicting information.
Many businesses, however, accept that some tasks would not get completed if
they only used formal channels of communications and chains of command. It
may be necessary to short cut the formal system if a matter is very argent
or a clash of a personalities is creating communications problems. Some
informal channels may be tolerated if groups of workers have formed good
working and personal relationship outside of the formal channels. Informal
channels may even be the most effective way of communicating some kinds of
information.
All organisations have a grapevine, which communicates information
informally through personal contact between employees both vertically and
horizontally throughout the organisation. The grapevine can be a quick way
of communicating information to the workforce as a whole as it tends to
operate by word of mouth. It can be used to pass on important information
before an official announcement and, depending upon the feedback generated,
the company may modify its intentions before the formal announcement.
The problem with using the grapevine is that information can get distorted
or exaggerated as it is passed on. Proposal to cut a workforce, through 10%
natural wastage and 5% redundancies, may soon get changed to 15% compulsory
redundancies as it spreads through the grapevine. This may be useful as the
actual announcement may prove to be much more acceptable than the distorted
version on the grapevine.
External communications
Efficient internal communications are important, but an organisation’s
external communications are vital. Its business prospects will be seriously
threatened if it neglects its external communications. An organisation
needs to communicate externally with:
. customers and clients
. suppliers of materials, parts, machinery, other physical inputs and
business services
. local, national and European authorities that deal with matters such
as taxation, planning permission, environmental protection,
competition law, investment grants, trading standards, and health and
safety
. pressure groups concerned with issues such as consumer protection,
animal welfare, environmental matters and the welfare of law paid
workers
. the media and the general public on matters that can either damage or
enhance the company’s public image.
Organisation must ensure that the quality of their external communications
is as high as possible and select the most effective media for
communicating information. It is obviously important that organisations
maintain effective communications with their customers, and most businesses
invest heavily in market research promotion to attract and keep customers.
Many companies now recognise the importance of providing a communication
channel which allows customers easy access to the company. Some companies
advertise a customer care telephone number or an E-mail address on their
packaging or promotional literature. The customer care section will be
stuffed by people trained in the kinds of communications skills needed to
deal with customers making complains. Larger companies may employ
specialists press officers and public relations officers to handle dealings
with the media, pressure groups and the general public.
Organisations relying on other companies for materials and components can
find themselves in financial difficulties of their external communications
lets them down and orders are not placed at the right time. This may led to
shortages of parts and materials, and production may be held up. Relations
with suppliers may also be affected by poor verbal communications skills
which can cause confusion of the exact nature and delivery of an order. It
is for this reason that any changes to an order made verbally should be
supported by some form of written or electronic confirmation.
Opened and restricted channel of communications
In most organisations, some internal channels and communication media are
open to all employees; stuff at all levels can access the information.
Organisations want to provide some information to all their employees. This
would include, for example, information on health and safety regulations,
environmental management policies, incentive chemist and any response to
resent adverse publicity. This downward information flow from the top of
the hierarchy would be open to all.
The content of much downward and upward information flow sis fairly
routine, and organisation are not too concerned about people beyond the
sender and recipient being aware of what is being communicated. However,
access to some information and channels of communications may be
restricted. Some information is sensitive – and if it becomes known to
people other than the intended recipients, it could create either internal
or external problems.
Information and communication technology
Both internal and external channels of communication are increasingly
supported by information technology, with computers generating and managing
information flows. A computer-based information management system provides
the mean to communicate, collect, store, summarise, analyse and present
information in a way that best suits the controlling and decision making
needs of different managers. Inform received by one department or section
can be further processed before it passed onto other departments through
the organisations computer network.
Computer systems can help organisations:
. react changes in the business environment
. process complex information
. provides administrative support
. increase job certification
. collect information at source
. communicate via the internet.
The Data Protection Act 1984
The Data Protection Act was introduced to ensure that organisations
structured and managed the data held on their computers in a responsible
way. These are its main provisions.
. Organisations must register the kind of information it keeps on
individuals with The Data Protection Agency (DPA).
. Data must be obtained and processed fairly. People should know if the
information they give to organisations will be kept on computer and why
it is needed.
. Organisations can only collect the kind if information that they have
registered with the DPA, and the data must not be used outside of the
purpose for which it has been registered.
. The information held on individuals must be accurate and, where
necessary, up to date and it must not be kept longer than necessary.
. Organisations must take precautions against unauthorised access to the
information they hold on individuals.
. Individuals are allowed access to the personal data held by
organisations and, where necessary they can correct mistakes.
In March 2000 the Data Protection Art was extended to cover records kept on
a paper as well as information stored on computers and to provide
additional protection for the individual. The protection includes new
rights to know who holds information on you. It provides a statutory right
to know the identity of the person in a business responsible for data
protection issues, right to have a photocopy of personal information held
by organisations and greater rights to object to anyone holding personal
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